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This information is reprinted from the For Beginners column
of Hand Papermaking Newsletter #39 (July, 1997).
To learn how to order Hand Papermaking bi-annual magazine
and quarterly newsletter, click
here.
Watermarks
The thickness of a sheet of paper, or the overall density
of its fibers, primarily determines how opaque the paper
will appear when held up to light. A watermark is a design
made visible in the sheet of paper because the mesh of fibers
is made thinner and less opaque in the image area, allowing
more light to shine through.
Western-style papermakers began using thin, bent wire to
form watermarks in the thirteenth century. They continue
to do so today. Most often the trademark of a particular
mill, these linear designs are made by attaching the wire
to the surface of the mould. While the concept is simple,
this method is often time consuming and may require a skillful
hand, depending on the intricacy of the design. During sheet
formation, the layer of pulp deposited on the mould is thinner
where the wire design lies, and is thus less opaque in the
final sheet. The image is impressed farther into the sheet
during couching.
By the mid-nineteenth century, papermakers were no longer
limited to the linear watermark designs created with traditional
bent wire. A new technique for creating shadowmarks or chiaroscuro
(light and shade) watermarks allowed papermakers and the
artists who worked with them to create more subtle images
with varying opacity. Gradations of tone are realized because
of small differences in the density or thickness of the
paper pulp from one image area to another. As with watermarks
made using wire, these images are seen best when backlit.
This type of watermark was commonly used for currency, since
the effect is hard to reproduce.
Chiaroscuro watermarks start with a sculpted design. A
relief sculpture, generally made of wax, is the model for
a die and matrix. These give shape to a fine wire mesh that
is attached to the screen of a papermaking mould. This shaped
area of the screen collects varying amounts of pulp as the
fiber settles when a sheet is pulled. (See the Summer 1994
issue of Hand Papermaking for a description and photos of
the famous chiaroscuro watermarks created at the Magnani
mill in Italy.)
While bibliographers use watermarks to trace the history
of paper (see the article by Brett Charbeneau in Hand Papermaking's
Winter 1993 issue), papermakers enjoy the beauty and distinction
a watermark adds to their sheet. Modern papermakers continue
to employ the traditional methods outlined above while experimenting
with newer techniques, such as photo-etched magnesium watermarks.
The Summer 1996 issue of Hand Papermaking features an article
and sample from Katie Macgregor and Bernie Vinzani, who
use computer-generated images and sign-making equipment
to create intricate watermarks. Whatever the technique,
traditional or modern, the goal is the same: to create an
attractive design within the sheet using subtle variations
in paper thickness.
Copyright 1997, Hand Papermaking, Inc.
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