Often roads that remained uncovered were the only open ground through a shallow sea due to their artificially raised grades. They became lonely lines bordered by immense rafts of reed stalks broken by the water, extending over a hundred feet as a floating fringe to the road. It was difficult to imagine the terrain beneath the water. So I asked my friend, Graham Russell, who lives on the Sand Lake Refuge, to take pictures when the flood waters receded. Thanks to these photos, I became aware of a phenomenon that I like to call flood paper. In his photos, I noticed large sheets of a pale, tan material hanging from road signs and tenting over standing stalks of marsh reeds. It looked like paper or felt. I immediately called Graham to ask if he would consider gathering some for me. When I finally saw and handled the pieces, they looked like animal hides, but were very light in weight and felt like a loose felt fabric or very coarse paper. The side that had been against the water was dark brown and filled with tiny, translucent snail shells, dragon fly nymph cases, and bits of broken reed. The top surface was a pale tan. At first, I surmised that the material was the product of water action and retting on the rafts of broken reeds that I had observed during the height of the flood. Such is the prejudice of a papermaker's perspective. My theory was changed by what I saw in early June 2010 at Sand Lake. The same area had flooded again, but now the weather was warm. Floating on much of the standing water was a thick green surface that looked and felt like wet wool. I realized that I was seeing the growing stage of the flood paper. I have since learned that this growth is most likely a water plant called Siphonoclades pithophora pithophora, a type of a group of fresh-water filamentous algae2 that is considered an invasive nuisance since it spreads rapidly over ponds, small lakes, or any standing water, and is difficult to eradicate. Historically, this group of algae, of which there are many varieties, was generically called conferva. I will use this term except when referring to the particular variety in South Dakota. With this discovery, I remembered having read of something like this water plant in Dard Hunter's account of early attempts in Europe to find alternative fibers to rags for papermaking.3 In 1799, G.A. Senger, a German preacher and naturalist, published a pamphlet, The Oldest Source of Paper Found in Nature along with Proposals for New Materials for Making Paper on his efforts to use conferva as a papermaking fiber.4 While waiting for a translation of Senger's pamphlet, I located a scan of a 1769 letter by John Strange, a British diplomat, naturalist, and antiquarian, who lived in Italy and observed after-flood "natural paper" deposits of conferva in Cortona, in Tuscany.5 The circumstances by his account were very close to those that produced what I witnessed in South Dakota: extensive lowland flooding and slow drainage, accompanied by warm weather. The so-called "natural paper" results when the water beneath the algae evaporates and the mat of fiber dries out. Although his letter is primarily concerned with identifying the fiber botanically, he refers to various articles from the 1700s in which conferva was repeatedly discussed as a possible fiber for paper, packing, and clothing. However none of the experiments with the plant led to any established use. John Strange concludes that his own conferva observations were "of more speculation and curiosity than use."6 G.A. Senger refers to the same texts that John Strange mentions and many besides those. He discusses the methods he used to process the conferva, but more generally than an artisan would. Part of the pamphlet records Senger's observations of the plant in situ and includes quotations of various reports on the identification of the conferva varieties and of the attempts to use them. A good deal of the pamphlet is dedicated to philosophical ruminations on man's awareness of the usefulness of the example of natural phenomena and the economy of nature. Thus, although Senger's pamphlet was informative, much of it was frustrating due to the absence of specific details about the processing of the fiber, particularly after he had professional papermakers making the samples for him. The problem lies in the fact that he was not himself a papermaker and that he was so invested in the example of conferva as a paper fiber to prove his philosophical theses that he did not examine critically the processing and product. This is despite the fact that when he sent samples of his paper for trial use and commentary to "great artists and members of the Academic Senates of Berin, Chodowiecki, Rode, Berger, etc.," the responses were not enthusiastic.7 Many mentioned some variation of "…it would be better without the impurities."8 Also, the strength of the paper was faulted; for example, "It could be used for drawing if Flood paper skins (dried mats of Siphonoclades pithophora pithophora) hung upon road signs after flood waters receded in Columbia, South Dakota in September 2009. Photo: Graham Russell. it were firmer, because when the black chalk is hard, it can easily tear the paper."9 However, Preacher Senger portrays these testimonies as positive when he states, "the quality of the paper and its suitability for sketching were confirmed."10 Senger disputes testimony that he quotes in his pamphlet regarding the impurities in conferva and the loss of weight during washing and processing, but it seems that his negations spring from false hope and his own incomplete understanding of papermaking processes. In my experience, even allowing for the fact that the species of conferva used by Senger was probably different than what I have found in South Dakota, conferva's detractors were correct. Nevertheless, I did find potentially useful information in Senger's pamphlet. For example, he mentions that the fiber could be whitened by freezing or by being left out layered in the snow.11 (Like Japanese snow bleaching of kozo?) His references to types of conferva and their identification indicate to me that I have observed and gathered a different variety in South Dakota.12 Also, Senger describes a method for discerning if the conferva is mature enough for use: "…press it lightly with your hand and if dry wool remains, it is mature and good; however, in unusable condition it…feels like a mealy pulp."13 There does seem to be a greater range than he realized in this test since I have found that "mature" fiber, as defined by this method, can still be too young to be sturdy enough. Senger's records of the various attempted uses of conferva are quite engaging. People tried it for hats, bodice padding, pillows, mattress stuffing, and in the green form for bone healing. All of the dry-form uses resulted in respiratory afflictions because the fiber breaks down into a powder and contains various organisms. When I cleaned my samples of pithophora, I had to wear a filter mask because it produced so much dust. So far, I have conducted two papermaking tests with pithophora, one with the green summer fiber that Graham Russell and I gathered in June of 2010, and a second with the tan autumn fiber that Graham gathered for me after the 2009 flood receded. We collected a large quantity of the summer fiber from a drainage ditch, wrung it out, and spread it to dry. It possessed great wet web strength as we lifted it from the water. The volume of other life inhabiting the pithophora was equally impressive: countless snails, some very tiny fish, and the nymph forms of various insects. The pithophora truly felt like wet wool as we wrung it out. As it dries in the sun, the green color starts to bleach to a gray tan, but never to the white so frequently mentioned by G.A. Senger. The tan autumn material that dried in situ is definitely the more mature fiber if judged by length of the growth cycle and the thickness and durability of the fiber when handled and processed. The dry flood paper from September has far fewer snails than the June flood paper. The time-consuming cleaning that the fiber requires makes it impractical for traditional papermaking, particularly because the paper yield is less than 50% by weight. The resulting paper is without any special distinction and has poor tear strength. However, the use of the fiber as is (i.e., harvested in nature), for both drawing and sculptural manipulation, is another matter. I am proceeding in this fashion. My own method of working is to be collaborative with the tendencies that seem inherent in the materials that I use. The growth habit of the pithophora results in complex matrices. These have attracted attention historically because the surfaces resemble familiar fabrics or paper. The mistake, I think, has been to assume that this similarity means that the stuff should be used to make those things through processes developed in response to entirely different materials and circumstances. So my future plans for working with flood paper involve acknowledging the opportunistic growth structure of this fresh-water algae and the habitat it provides small creatures at various stages in their development. Flood paper is a fabric made by the events of its context. It is the surface text of the flood. My adaptation will not be paper although my lifelong fascination with paper drew me to this unusual material. notes 1. John Jave, retired Deputy Refuge Manager, in conversation with Graham Russell, USFWS Surveyor, as reported by Graham Russell to author in conversation, July 2010. 2. From the Bioremediate.com LLC website, http://www.bioremediate.com/ 2. From the Bioremediate.com LLC website, http://www.bioremediate.com/ algae2.html (accessed October 17, 2010). algae2.html (accessed October 17, 2010). 3. Dard Hunter, Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft 3. Dard Hunter, Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1978), 331–32, 522–23. (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1978), 331–32, 522–23. 4. All quotes from G.A. Senger's pamphlet, including this rendition of the title, 4. All quotes from G.A. Senger's pamphlet, including this rendition of the title, have been translated by Professor Margaret Devinney of Temple University (in have been translated by Professor Margaret Devinney of Temple University (in consultation with Sabine Connerton, an independent freelance translator in Wisconsin) consultation with Sabine Connerton, an independent freelance translator in Wisconsin) from the original Old German text made available on-line by Google from the original Old German text made available on-line by Google Books. In German, Die älteste Urkunde der Papierfabrikation in der Natur entdekt Books. In German, Die älteste Urkunde der Papierfabrikation in der Natur entdekt nebst Vorschlagen zu neuen Papierstoffen von G.A. Senger, Prediger zu nebst Vorschlagen zu neuen Papierstoffen von G.A. Senger, Prediger zu Reck. Dortmund und Leipzig, 1799. My thanks to Cindy Bowden, director of the Reck. Dortmund und Leipzig, 1799. My thanks to Cindy Bowden, director of the Robert C. Williams Paper Museum at Georgia Tech, for putting me in touch with Robert C. Williams Paper Museum at Georgia Tech, for putting me in touch with Doug Stone, paper conservator and consultant to the museum's Dard Hunter Collection. Doug Stone, paper conservator and consultant to the museum's Dard Hunter Collection. I am grateful to Doug who informed me that Google Books scanned the I am grateful to Doug who informed me that Google Books scanned the Senger pamphlet. In an interesting aside, Doug told me that during his research Senger pamphlet. In an interesting aside, Doug told me that during his research on Dard Hunter, he discovered that Hunter did not always have an entire text on Dard Hunter, he discovered that Hunter did not always have an entire text translated, but sometimes just got enough for the purposes of whatever he was translated, but sometimes just got enough for the purposes of whatever he was writing at the time. This would explain why Hunter describes the Senger pamphlet writing at the time. This would explain why Hunter describes the Senger pamphlet as being printed on paper made from conferva, when Professor Devinney's draft as being printed on paper made from conferva, when Professor Devinney's draft translation of the pamphlet reveals that the paper is, by Senger's own description translation of the pamphlet reveals that the paper is, by Senger's own description in his preface, only about 50% conferva and the rest rag. in his preface, only about 50% conferva and the rest rag. 5. John Strange, An Account of an Essay on the Origin of a Natural Paper, 5. John Strange, An Account of an Essay on the Origin of a Natural Paper, Found Near the City of Cortona in Tuscany. In a Letter from John Strange, Esq., Found Near the City of Cortona in Tuscany. In a Letter from John Strange, Esq., F.R.S. to Mathew Maty, M.D. Sec. R.S., published by The Royal Society in Philosophical F.R.S. to Mathew Maty, M.D. Sec. R.S., published by The Royal Society in Philosophical Transactions (1683–1775), vol. 59 (1769): 50–56. Transactions (1683–1775), vol. 59 (1769): 50–56. 6. Ibid., 54. 6. Ibid., 54. 7. G.A. Senger, 49. 7. G.A. Senger, 49. 8. Ibid., 50. Senger admits that the fiber had been prepared in haste without attention 8. Ibid., 50. Senger admits that the fiber had been prepared in haste without attention to purity. to purity. 9. Ibid., 50. 9. Ibid., 50. 10. Ibid., 49. 10. Ibid., 49. 11. Ibid., 57. 11. Ibid., 57. 12. Ibid., 70–77. Three confervas—Conferva rivularis, Conferva bullosa, and Conferva 12. Ibid., 70–77. Three confervas—Conferva rivularis, Conferva bullosa, and Conferva reticulata, now known as Cladophora rivularis, Cladophora glomerata, and Hydrodictyon reticulata, now known as Cladophora rivularis, Cladophora glomerata, and Hydrodictyon reticulatum—are particularly mentioned in summary on page 77. See reticulatum—are particularly mentioned in summary on page 77. See the website http://www.algaebase.org/search/species/ for name change information the website http://www.algaebase.org/search/species/ for name change information and http://www.usa.com/aquatics/Algae_pithophora.php for differentiation and http://www.usa.com/aquatics/Algae_pithophora.php for differentiation between spirogyra and cladophora. between spirogyra and cladophora. 13. Ibid., 29. 13. Ibid., 29.    

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