In the twenty-first century, the reasons for producing paper by hand are significantly different than they were before the industrial revolution. No longer is it the only viable material for printing and distributing large volumes of written information. In our electronic era, paper is often not used at all for this purpose. Because a large quantity of handmade paper is not needed any more, attention can now be focused on the unique qualities and variables that occur when manufacturing a product by hand. Unfortunately, during the intervening years since the hand manufacture of paper was an active, high-volume industry, we have forgotten many valuable techniques that addressed the effect of long hours of repetitive work on the human body. What can be done to reduce the physical stresses of hand papermaking and help contemporary papermakers continue to practice this ancient craft? At the Research and Production Paper Facility for the University of Iowa Center for the Book (UICB), we believe that the integration of traditional tools and techniques with innovative solutions appropriate for small-scale operations can reduce many of the stresses caused by this craft. By learning all we can from past papermakers and papermaking practices, we can ensure that we are making use of the solutions and improvements that evolved through centuries of practice. What is now a tradition was once an innovation. Technology and innovation have continuously contributed to the evolution of traditional crafts, like papermaking, throughout the centuries.  From classroom to artistic studio to small-scale production and research, contemporary hand papermaking has taken on many forms. Still, it continues to be both physically demanding and repetitive, two factors that work in tandem to create unusually high ergonomic risk factors. My ergonomic-related research at the UICB has focused on identifying the beneficial ergonomic techniques of early papermakers and then combining them with contemporary modifications based on the recommendations provided by a team of ergonomic engineers, occupational specialists, and physical therapists.1  A number of developments in early European papermaking improved the ergonomic load of the work. The hydraulic press eventually replaced the hand-turned screw press and provided much greater pressure, which both strengthened the paper and made the damp sheets easier to handle. European papermakers also developed the hog, a paddle wheel–type mixer in the bottom of the vat that automatically stirred the pulp while sheet forming. This device allowed for greater uniformity of sheet thickness and eliminated the time consuming task of hand stirring the pulp.  In traditional Western papermaking, the vatman would be part of a three-person team. At Hayle Mill in England, after forming a fresh sheet of paper, the vatman would send the mould along a wooden bridge to the coucher. The coucher would raise it up onto the asp to allow it to drain for a few seconds before couching it onto the post. During this time, the vatman would form another sheet of paper. The third member of the team, the layboy, would remove the pressed sheets from the post.  During formation, a belly board was often used by the vatman to help support the abdomen and lower back. The top of the vat should rest about one or two inches below the sheetformer's navel and allow him to lean over it without bending at the waist. The stock should be at a height that allows the arms to hang down from the shoulders in an extended position, generally three to six inches below the top of the vat. Cyril Finn, from the historic Wookey Hole Papermill in England, exhibits the ideal vatman’s form with his body and hands relaxed, his back straight, and his head in alignment with his spine. Another important traditional device that is rarely used in Western papermaking today is the hip support that the European coucher typically leaned against during couching. This can be imitated by simply attaching a bar to the couching stand. The bar supports the lower abdomen and back when leaning forward during couching. Ideally, this would be padded and adjustable for the heights of different workers. (For larger sheets, in both traditional and contemporary papermaking, two people often couch to assure proper pressure over the entire sheet.)  For the sake of both efficiency and ergonomics, traditional papermakers often devised systems that allowed them to easily move large, heavy posts of paper into the press. Unfortunately, many contemporary papermaking shops utilize presses that were not originally made for papermakers. This requires them to lift and carry the post above the level of their waist.  Pressed sheets are removed from the felts so that the felts can be used continuously throughout the day. Traditionally, the paper would have been laid directly on top of each other in a pack by the layboy. As the name suggests, this role was often given to the youngest and least experienced worker. His youth was, no doubt, the reason he could withstand the posture his task often forced him to assume. The UICB has tested a number of set-ups to try to alleviate the stress of this job. In the end, the solution was to utilize a single person only when laying very thick sheets. Thinner, more delicate book papers are now generally handled by two people working together. There is a synchronicity that develops when a number of people work together and this is an ideal way to train new people. In addition, workers become more skilled and efficient when they repeat the same task over and over, and each piece of equipment can be set to the ideal height of that worker. Yet, one of the most important factors in avoiding repetitive injuries is task diversification. Therefore, at the UICB, teams of two or three people rotate after each post of approximately twenty-to-thirty sheets.  Throughout history, technological developments often provided solutions to labor intensive operations, like papermaking, that were hard on the human body. A variety of solutions were developed throughout Asia to aid in supporting the weight of the mould. When the size of handmade papers began to increase in Japan, papermakers developed an ingenious yet simple suspension system using long bamboo poles, which provided flexibility while alleviating much of the weight borne by the papermaker during sheet formation. Another improvement was the development of the mechanical stamper beater that could replace the majority of the extensive hand beating required to prepare high quality, bast fiber. Most Asian paper is made using bast fibers from the bark of small trees. Harvesting bast fibers like kozo is seasonal work done after the leaves fall. To produce the highest quality fiber, all the plants need to be cut, steamed, and stripped at the same time of year. Traditionally, papermakers often enlisted the help of the entire family and community for this job. Much of the scraping of the outer black bark was also done before the fiber was dried for later use. When it was time for the fiber to be used it was soaked and scraped more thoroughly if clean, white paper was being made. This task is extremely repetitive and very hard on the hands, wrists, shoulders, and back. Once again, the UICB enlisted the help of ergonomic engineers to determine a better set-up for scraping the many kilograms of bark prepared in a season. Based on their recommendations, we created an inexpensive seating arrangement that allows the worker to sit upright with the scraping board at a much better angle for both the arms and wrists. Although just about any knife can be used for this process we found that the traditional Korean knives designed specifically for scraping bark to be the most effective. Their large handle grips cause far less hand and arm fatigue than ordinary knives.  In Japan, chiri tori, the removal of bits of black bark and debris from the fiber, was a back breaking process that was often reserved for older women who did the work while kneeling. In the west, few people have the hip flexibility that would allow them to kneel for hours on end. It is therefore necessary to develop a set-up that does not compromise the upper or lower body. An adjustable stool and an abdominal support help prevent hunching over while working. Adding foam cushions along the edge of the picking tray can help to avoid excessive pressure on the forearms.  Hand beating fiber is one of the most physically demanding tasks involved in eastern style papermaking. Whether using a long wooden bat or smaller mallets, care should be taken to break and stretch frequently, and foam cushions should be added to the handles to provide vibration attenuation. For larger scale production, a mechanical stamper beater can greatly reduce the need for hand beating. Based on a Japanese design, Tim Barrett built a small-scale stamper beater that we now use for all our kozo preparation. The UICB uses a suspension system for our two-by-three foot sugeta. It is made with inexpensive surgical tubing attached to an overhead support. This greatly reduces the stress on the papermaker’s arms, shoulders, and back, and allows large sheets to be made without compromising the safety of the worker.  When drying Asian-style paper it is important to make sure that the workstations are the appropriate height for each worker. We have created a set-up that avoids postures that required either repeated overhead extension (which strains the neck and shoulders), or forward bending (which strains the lower back). The UICB has developed a number of strategies to help alleviate the level of ergonomic strain for many of the processes involved in contemporary hand papermaking. When setting up a studio, it is important to have a cooking area that allows easy access to pots without lifting above the waist or using precarious stools or steps. We found industrial steam kettles used in food preparation to be ideal for large-scale production. Portable gas burners, often used for frying turkeys, are useful for smaller quantities. Using drain baskets on wheels and buckets with dollies makes it easy to handle and move fiber and pulp.  Mixing fiber into the vat takes a tremendous amount of time and often puts the papermaker in hunched over positions that are hard on the shoulders and upper back. An ideal solution is to install a simple motor driven hog mixer, which can stir pulp into the vat and keep it in suspension during formation. Another relatively low-tech method uses PVC tubing with holes. This is placed at the bottom of the vat with a hose attached to an air compressor. This churns the pulp vigorously with bubbles.  It is very important to make sure the vat is at the proper height. If multiple people are using a facility, simple risers can be made out of plywood to accommodate papermakers of various heights without changing the vat set-up. Two risers of different heights can stack to make a higher platform.  Mould size plays an extremely significant roll in determining the level of ergonomic stress during paper formation. Large mould sizes force the arms to extend out sideways instead of allowing them to hang down naturally from the shoulders. Based on recommendations from physical therapists and ergonomic experts, the UICB has reduced the size of its paper to 18" x 24” and developed a counterweight suspension system. This type of system was inexpensive and simple to install. It is also being employed by a number of other papermakers, including Bridget O’Malley and Amanda Degener of Cave Paper. Brass rods with hooks at the ends are placed under the mould on either side. These are attached to a simple pulley system. A bucket filled with water provides the desired amount of weight to counterbalance the mould and stock during formation. This system requires a more balanced use of muscles, since the papermaker pushes down while entering the vat and then pulls up while forming the sheet, with the counterweight supporting the mould during the actual shaking. This suspension system was modified to use two buckets with pulleys to produce 3-foot square deckle box sheets for the Charters of Freedom project.2 The project required thin, even sheets that were consistently 100 and 200 gsm. The deckle box allowed the pulp to be measured accurately for each sheet while the counterweight allowed the heavy deckle box and stock to be easily lifted by two people. The Indian autovat (developed in the mid-twentieth century) provides yet another innovative way to allow one papermaker to make large thick sheets without excessive ergonomic risk. This system utilizes a foot-powered lever attached to a deckle box to help alleviate the weight born by the vatman during formation. In order to utilize a modified industrial press that was too high to lift the post into, the UICB purchased a relatively inexpensive hydraulic cart that could be used for couching and allowed one person to easily move and raise the post of paper to the height of the press. The best solution would be to purchase a press specifically designed for the needs of hand papermaking, with a press bed at the same height as the couching cart. There are various ways of drying pressed paper. Loft dried paper is often hung on overhead racks which forces the worker to repeatedly overextend her reach above her head. If the drying rack cannot be lowered during use, it is advisable to get a platform or stable rolling ladder that brings the worker closer to the rack. Far more commonly, contemporary papermakers utilize forced-air restraint drying systems for drying paper. In this case, it is important to position work surfaces at a height that avoids excessive bending or reaching. Also, care should be taken to lift any weight that is applied by bending at the knees, to avoid straining the lower back. The final task of grading paper can be just as hard on the body. Each sheet must be inspected for quality and imperfections removed or minimized. The sheets are then graded for later use or sale. The worker often must sit or stand in a static position with her head and neck in an extreme forward position. The height of the work surface at a grading station should be appropriate for the worker. A simple board and shelf can provide an angled surface that is much better for the close-detailed work required during this step. To avoid eye strain, the grading station should be set up where there is ample light, preferably natural. Fatigue mats or other cushioning can help reduce the painful effects of standing for long periods of time on hard surfaces.  Because each papermaker is unique and the conditions in which she works differs from those of other papermakers, it is difficult to recommend specific ergonomic interventions for every situation. The ones presented here are meant to be guidelines to encourage you to begin investigating the subject for yourself. But we all do extensive lifting and must learn to do so with our legs rather than our lower backs. We all need to be certain we are working with equipment that is at the proper height. We spend countless hours standing on cold concrete floors and we all need to be aware that we spend days on end overusing our upper bodies. It is therefore important that we do everything we can to maintain overall health and fitness if we want to sustain this labor-intensive craft. With the guidance of a physical therapist, certified trainer, or other health professional, it is important to strengthen the upper back, lower back, and abdominal areas as well as regularly stretching the hands, arms, shoulders, and neck to counter the muscle imbalances that can occur during repetitive activities. We should approach our craft like dedicated athletes: by warming up, stretching out, and conditioning our bodies for the work we love. With greater awareness and education about the stresses encountered when making paper by hand, we can all continue to practice this valuable craft well into the future.  Endnotes 1.       Special thanks are due to Peter Thomas for his work with traditional English papermakers and their ergonomic contributions to the craft. 2.       See Lynn Amlie, "The Charters of Freedom: Support Papers for the Re-encasement Project," Hand Papermaking, Summer 2001, Volume 16 Number 1, pp. 14-19.   For more information about University of Iowa Center for the Book research on the ergonomics of hand papermaking or the accompanying video, contact the UICB at <www.uiowa.edu/~ctrbook>, or call 319/335-4410.