Although it behaves as though it were a homogenous material, a sheet of paper is essentially a network of fibers, arranged randomly on top of one another, and with numerous channels of air between them. One could even say that it is simply a large number of holes surrounded by fibers. Documentary sources identify the commencement of a papermaking process in China in at least the second century BCE.2 We know that by the middle of the seventh century CE paper had been imported into Central Asia via the cat's cradle of highways that we refer to today as the Silk Route. It is widely accepted that by the middle of the eighth century a papermaking industry had been established in Samarkand (present-day Uzbekistan). From there the industry spread rapidly, into Persia (modernday Iran and Iraq) by the end of the eighth century, into Syria and Egypt by the ninth century, and into southern Spain and North Africa by the tenth century. A plentiful supply of pure water, together with an abundant crop of flora producing a yield of pure fiber, were prerequisites for the growth and maintenance of a successful paper industry. In the Islamic world, where linen and hemp grow indigenously, the fibers extracted from these plants naturally became the chief raw materials of the papermaker; moreover, they have retained their dominance in the craft to the present day. One or the other fiber could be used exclusively within a sheet, or the papermaker could combine the two. The process of converting the raw fibers to a finished sheet of paper fundamentally involved four key stages: maceration of the pulp The raw materials were gathered together in a heap, saturated with water (frequently with the addition of lime), and left to ferment in this sodden state for a period up to ten weeks. The resulting mass was boiled, placed in cloth bags, and suspended in a running stream in order to remove all unwanted impurities. The fermented fibers were then pounded. Initially this process involved the elementary technique of hitting them with a heavy pestle onto a mortar of rough stone; later, a trip hammer was introduced, whereby the workers trod upon the end of a tilt-bar attached horizontally to a hammer, causing the latter to fall heavily on the substance below. It is also likely that a form of beating powered by water wheels was also employed to reduce the plant fibers to a workable state. sheet formation upon a mould Once macerated, the paper fibers were returned to a vat of water, into which a sieve-like screen could be dipped and drawn up horizontally, collecting a thin layer of interwoven fibers on its surface. It is probable that the first mould was nothing more than a square of coarsely woven cloth stretched permanently across a four-sided wooden frame, and referred to today as a wove mould, with the paper formed on its surface defined as wove paper. This would appear to have been the most popular type of mould for first hundred years of paper's manufacture in the Islamic world. By the ninth century a new design was introduced, comprising a flexible screen of strips of reed, grass, or later wire, which were laced together with silk, flax, or camel, yak, or horse hair. This screen was stretched across a wooden frame, and both were then dipped into and drawn out of the water. Once the wet fibers had solidified sufficiently on its surface, the screen could be removed from the frame, placed upturned on a flat surface and rolled away, leaving the sheet on the surface below. Within minutes, a second sheet of paper could then be made. This mould is referred to as a laid mould, with the paper formed on its surface defined as laid paper. Through the systematic analysis of dated samples, it is apparent that reed was used exclusively for the construction of the mould's screen during the ninth and tenth centuries, by which time grass was introduced as an alternative. Although it did not supplant reed immediately, by the end of the twelfth century grass was used exclusively for mould construction, dominating the industry until the seventeenth century, when wire was introduced.3 drying Sheets of paper made on the elementary wove mould were left to dry on the woven textile of the screen itself, largely because of the difficulty of removing the newly formed sheet from the mould while it was still wet. The laid mould, with its independent and flexible mould cover, facilitated the separation of the sheet from the screen while it was damp, and once removed from the mould, the paper could be dried in a number of ways: spread flat against boards or, as is customary in Bengal today, against smooth metal plates; brushed against smooth masonry walls; laid across ropes or poles spread upon the ground, or hung upon drying lines. In the Islamic world, the technique of couching one sheet upon another to form a stack or post was also practiced, although it was not customary to interleave newly formed sheets with felt, as in the Western tradition. sizing Sizing is the means by which a sheet of paper is strengthened and made impervious to ink, and has a history of use dating back to early Chinese papermaking, where the earliest papers were covered with a thin coating of gypsum or gum tragacanth. In the Islamic world, a rice-based starch was used in preference to any other, which was obtained through straining boiled rice through a piece of clean linen, and collecting the starch-filled water beneath. The solution could be brushed onto both sides of the formed sheet, or alternatively the whole sheet could be dipped into a tub of size, giving the paper an inherent strength and durability, and an evenness of size distribution throughout. In order to produce a smooth and glossy surface, the sized sheet was burnished with one of a number of implements, the most widely mentioned being agate and onyx. These twin processes of sizing and burnishing rendered the finished sheet relatively impervious to ink, and suitable for use as a writing material, such that text, illumination, or illustration were prevented from sinking too far into the fiber network. Although it is unwise to classify papers solely according to how they were sized, trends in the practice can be identified. Generally speaking, the amount of size applied to a sheet of paper increased from century to century, with the earliest papers being notably softer to the touch than their later counterparts. Also from region to region there is an identifiable difference: although most early papers are similar to the touch, from the fifteenth century onwards there is a clear distinction between papers produced in Egypt and Syria, as opposed to Persia and Central Asia, with the more easterly regions favoring a more heavily sized and burnished sheet. Apart from sizing and burnishing, papers in the Islamic world can also be classified in terms of quality, place of manufacture, size of the sheet, color, and mould marks visible in the transmitted sheet. Quality is mainly measured by a paper's durability, determined largely upon the extent to which its raw fibers have been separated and fractured through the macerating process. With the partial removal of the cellulosic wall, fibers increase in surface area and flexibility and bond more readily with neighboring matter, creating a greater area of contact between the fibers and a greater degree of bonding, thereby producing a stronger and less absorbent the sheet. In the Middle East, the fibers were generally not beaten excessively, and often remained little modified by the process. Thus although Islamic papers are typically long fibered and tear resistant, the sheets are easily abraded, and will readily absorb moisture. The addition of size to the Islamic sheet helped to enhance the bonds between the fibers, and ensured that its surface was suitably prepared for writing, illumination, and illustration; thus a crudely prepared paper could still be used by even the most highly regarded artists, providing its surface was sized and burnished to a sufficient extent. Papers were categorized in terms of grade and usage, and laor post was also practiced, although it was not customary to interleave newly formed sheets with felt, as in the Western tradition. sizing Sizing is the means by which a sheet of paper is strengthened and made impervious to ink, and has a history of use dating back to early Chinese papermaking, where the earliest papers were covered with a thin coating of gypsum or gum tragacanth. In the Islamic world, a rice-based starch was used in preference to any other, which was obtained through straining boiled rice through a piece of clean linen, and collecting the starch-filled water beneath. The solution could be brushed onto both sides of the formed sheet, or alternatively the whole sheet could be dipped into a tub of size, giving the paper an inherent strength and durability, and an evenness of size distribution throughout. In order to produce a smooth and glossy surface, the sized sheet was burnished with one of a number of implements, the most widely mentioned being agate and onyx. These twin processes of sizing and burnishing rendered the finished sheet relatively impervious to ink, and suitable for use as a writing material, such that text, illumination, or illustration were prevented from sinking too far into the fiber network. Although it is unwise to classify papers solely according to how they were sized, trends in the practice can be identified. Generally speaking, the amount of size applied to a sheet of paper increased from century to century, with the earliest papers being notably softer to the touch than their later counterparts. Also from region to Removing the laid mould from the fiber stock, Rajasthan. Photo: Barbara Macfarlane, Khadi Papers, Chichester. Removal of the sheet from the screen, Rajasthan. Photo: Barbara Macfarlane, Khadi Papers, Chichester belled accordingly. With regard to quality, we find Persian terms such as kaghaz-I daftari (common paper), kaghaz-I kham (raw or unrefined paper), and kaghaz-I kahi (poor quality "straw" paper). With regard to the method of production and intended use, there are terms such as kaghaz-I ahar muhrah (glazed paper), kaghaz-I tahrir (writing paper), kaghaz-I charb (smooth paper), and kaghaz-I mashq (exercise or calligraphy paper).4 Terminology also referred to the place of manufacture: Isfahani, Baghdadi, Dawlatabadi, Samarqandi, Shami, and Hindi.5 Across the Islamic world, a degree of standardization of terminology existed with regard to the paper size. Usually a single sheet was known as darj, plural duruj, and a page was qartas (hence the European Charta), plural qaratis.6 Nine theoretical sizes of paper have been suggested by Joseph von Karabacek, the three most popular measuring 290 x 420 millimeters, 420 x 580 millimeters, and 580 x 840 millimeters.7 Following on from this, Jean Irigoin noted the following: first, paper sizes were the same in Egypt and Syria; secondly, the width of the finished sheet is two thirds its length; and thirdly, the width of the sheet is the same as the length of the size of sheet immediately preceding it.8 Thus a standard range of sizes was made possible by appropriate folding of the largest original sheet. Paper is naturally off-white in tone, but through the addition of a color, either by brushing or dipping the sheet, the Islamic papermaker could alter the appearance of his product dramatically. A range of hues were available: blue was generally produced from indigo or aloe; yellow from saffron and lemon; red from the dissolved bodies of the mealy bug; olive green from blue with saffron added; green from saffron with verdigris; and violet from blue and red. Coloring was carried out for a number of reasons: for aesthetic effect; for symbolic significance; or for the comfort of the reader. Blue was equated with mourning, such that in Egypt and Syria we find orders for the death sentence issued on blue paper. Red could symbolise humanity, and was frequently used when presenting petitions for justice; it equally symbolized festivity and joy, and for this reason light-red and rose-tinted papers gained particular popularity.9 Pure white was believed by some to be harmful to the naked eye, thus color was required to reduce the glare of the paper in bright light. Unlike their European counterparts, with their identifiable figurative and textual watermarks, Middle-Eastern papers do not contain such easily discernable motifs. However if one considers the construction of the mould and the impressions it leaves within the sheet formed on its surface, one can begin to categorize papers to a certain extent. For a paper made on a wove mould, only the texture of its cloth screen will be seen within the see-through of the sheet. With a material made on a laid mould, one can identify laid and chain lines within the sheet—the former from the closely packed strips of reed, grass, or wire of the flexible screen, the latter from the silk or animal-hair stitching that held the strips in position. On consideration of the fact that the strips of reed, grass, or wire tended to vary in width, with reed being the thickest and straightest, grass the most prone to waving and curving, and wire being the thinnest, one can begin to classify papers accordingly. To this one can add observations of chain line inclusion and distribution. Syrian and Egyptian papermakers seemed to delight in the arrangement of the stitching that held the mould's screen together, and from the twelfth century in particular, papers can be grouped according to whether chain lines appeared in pairs (twelfth century), groups of three (thirteenth through fifteenth centuries), alternating groups of two and three (fourteenth century), or occasionally groups of three and four (sixteenth century).10 In contrast, papers from the more easterly regions of the Middle East are noteworthy because of their lack of chain lines. This is not because the stitching was absent, but because there was a clear attempt by the papermakers of Persia and Central Asia to disguise their inclusion. It is only in the papers of Muslim Spain that anything approaching a Western watermark is found: a zigzag indentation running from the head to the tail of a sheet, or a series of overlapping diagonal crosses drawn with a brush or pointed implement in the newly made sheet prior to drying. Markings such as these are found in papers produced in the regions of Valencia and Catalonia in the twelfth through fourteenth centuries, and on occasion are found in papers used in Fez, Tunis, Tlemcen and Ceuta, the latter bearing witness to the close trade connections that linked southern Spain and the Maghrib. Paper is a material that has penetrated into every corner of ancient and contemporary society, and from East to West has brought about a means by which the written word has become as familiar to the masses as it once had been the privilege of the literate elite. Its manufacture has facilitated the production of the codex in hitherto unprecedented quantities and with the introduction and development of printing, it has encouraged the extensive transference of ideas and concepts from East to West, and from one generation to the next. The Middle-Eastern Islamic world encompasses a vast and diverse landmass, stretching from Central Asia and Persia (modernday Iran and Iraq), into Syria, Egypt, and North Africa, and until the end of the fifteenth century, it also extended into southern Spain. However in comparison with the study of European paper manufacture, what we know of the Middle Eastern craft is limited. This is partly due to a relative lack of primary source material from which to draw, but also a direct result of the manner in which Middle- Eastern papers are made: with no clear system of watermarks, there is no corresponding dictionary of signs and symbols to which one can refer as an aid to classification. Nevertheless there are numerous indicators of date and place of origin within the sheet itself, the most significant being the type of mould on which the sheet is formed, the quality of the fiber stock into which the mould is dipped, and the manner in which the surface of the sheet is prepared for use. Although it is difficult to apply an exact chronology to changes in the materials and techniques of the papermaker, trends in papermaking practice can be identified, and the characteristics of papers from a given century and region can be suggested. notes 1. Albertine Gaur, Writing Materials of the East (London: British Library, 1979), 30. 2. Sita Ramaseshan, "The History of Paper up to 1948," Indian Journal of History of Science vol. 24, issue 2 (1989): 104. 3. Helen Loveday, Islamic Paper, a Study of the Ancient Craft (London: Don Baker Memorial Fund, 2001), 59–70. 4. Iraj Afshar, "The Use of Paper in Islamic Manuscripts as Documented in Classical Persian Texts," in The Codicology of Islamic Manuscripts, Proceedings of the Second Conference of Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, 4–5 December 1993, ed. Yasin Dutton (London: Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, 1995), 79. 5. Ibid., 87. 6. Joseph von Karabacek, Das Arabische Papier (Vienna, 1887), trans. Don Baker and Suzy Dittmar as Arab Paper (London: Islington Books, 1991), 87. 7. Don Baker, "Arab Papermaking," The Paper Conservator 15 (1992): 30. 8. Jean Irigoin, "Les Types de Formes Utilisés dans l'Orient Méditerranéan (Syrie, Egypte) du XIe au XIVe Siècle," Papiergeschichte 13 (1963): 19–20. 9. Gulnar Bosch, John Carswell, and Guy Petherbridge, Islamic Bindings & Bookmaking, exhibition catalog (Chicago: The Oriental Institute, The University of Chicago, 1981), 34. 10. Helen Loveday, Islamic Paper, 70.

‍