The paper fiber was directly related to the success of the print. Today we study these early photographs for the wide range of expressive opportunities they provide. For the contemporary photographer expecting tight control, these processes are inexact and frustrating. If, on the other hand, one enjoys alchemy, painterly expression, a playful sense of wonder, and change, one will never tire of the following experiments, which use these early processes, and their variations. Before beginning there is one serious word of warning too often ignored. The skin is the largest organ of the body and these chemicals are contact poisons. Care must be used both for ourselves and our environment. Work only in well ventilated areas, wear gloves, purchase premixed solutions, clean all spills, and dispose of all waste properly. Give respectful attention to these processes because the chemicals are cumulative poisons. For most of this article, there are two assumptions: one is that you have made paper and the other is that you have done darkroom photography. If you have not, either may be resolved with some further reading and a little experimentation. The recipes and formulas I mention are those I have found useful and are only a starting point. All of these techniques are applicable to a wide range of commercial as well as handmade papers. Please consult the bibliography provided for sources of additional information on all of these processes. In papermaking for photographic processes it is desirable to have a paper with little shrinkage, good stability, and high wet strength. For traditional results, a smooth, bright, reflective surface is desirable. I have found a blend of cotton half-stuff and esparto works very well. I add titanium dioxide, retention agent, clay, calcium carbonate, and Hercon internal sizing (see box for proportions and beating times). I suggest all sheets be double couched for added stability. Sheets produced in this manner are strong, slightly warm in tonality, and have a smooth surface. All manner of pulp painting, monoprinting, image layering, and decorative effects may be incorporated. It should be remembered, however, that these sheets must withstand subsequent washing and processing. Loose matter in the paper will quickly contaminate processing chemicals in the darkroom and break the image on heat transfers. Fibers like abaca, kapok, kozo, gampi, and mitsumata may be used effectively as additives or as washes over the initial sheet in wet to wet processing. When making paper for these processes it is a good practice to make small sample sheets to use for testing. With a good supply of paper you have either produced, purchased from another papermaker, or obtained from a commercial source, you may choose some or all of the following processes to produce images. The information presented here is in extremely condensed form to give you some ideas and the encouragement to go further. Information on expanding and varying these techniques is available in greater detail in the sources recommended at the end. After you have paper you need some form of image, either on film or in another format. Possible formats for images are as varied as the types of paper which can be used. One surface to explore is mylar. It may be used as a drawing surface and most copy stores will transfer images onto it. Clear contact paper can be used to lift magazine images. Ruby-lith blocks light and can be cut to make stencils. Photo labs will make enlarged contact negatives from 35 mm images. Also, high contrast xerox copies may be used as paper negatives. Further reading will provide other ideas and experimentation is recommended. The first photographic process is the easiest and may be used by anyone, with or without a background in photography. It requires a sheet of smooth-surfaced paper, access to a color copier, and a sheet of heat transfer paper. These items are often available at custom T-shirt stores. Use either flat art or slides with this process. Slide images need to be light and of a slightly blue tonality to work successfully. Existing photographs and images may be placed directly on the copy machine. The image is transferred onto heat transfer paper which has been developed for use on the Canon 500 series copier and other standard color copiers. This transfer paper has a peel away backing and is used in the machine in place of regular copy paper. Take care to make a reverse image if left to right orientation is important, as with text, for example. After copying the image onto this paper, trim the image to the desired size for the final paper. Then place the heat transfer paper containing the image face down on the hand formed sheet and put the two on the bed of a heat transfer machine at 350 degrees for approximately 1 1/2 minutes. If this type of equipment is not available, the images may be ironed onto the receiving sheet. It is, however, difficult to obtain a steady high heat using an iron. I recommend the use of a heat press. Often the place you obtained the transfer will have the press. Quickly remove the paper with the transfer affixed and carefully lift and pull back the backing to reveal the finished print. This should be accomplished in one continuous motion. If the backing paper does not lift off easily, more heat should be applied. These transfers may be used with a wide variety of papers. Surface brightness in the sheet produces optimum results although striking variables will occur when images are added over pulp paintings. Images may be retouched or enhanced using Prisma colored pencils. There are several areas of darkroom procedure that are common to the next three processes, cyanotype, Van Dyke, and gum printing. Only non-metal materials should be used in contact with these chemicals. This includes containers for mixing and the ferrules of the brushes used in coating the papers. Low light conditions are acceptable, so safe light conditions are not necessary. With the exception of gum printing, which uses ultra violet light, the sun is the best exposure source. Contact print frames are the best way to insure good registration for the paper and image. The contact frame should be placed at an angle to the light source. Heat in drying is helpful and shortens exposure times for all these processes. Prints should be placed face down in warm water for about ten minutes after exposure. They can then be turned and processed in normal light. They may be hung clothesline fashion or placed between double polyester screens to dry. Cyanotype is one of the easiest of the photographic techniques adaptable to the handmade paper surface. It is also one of the most poisonous. Take care to coat papers on a separate surface used only for this process and do not allow these chemicals to remain on tables, clothes, or equipment. Mix together equal portions of ferric ammonium citrate (light sensitizer) and potassium ferricyanide (color), brush them onto the paper surface, and allow them to dry. The coating is a characteristic yellow-green prior to exposure and turns dark grey-blue in light. After exposure, wash the print. There are a wide range of color shifts and toning possibilities with this process. Van Dyke is another process using simple techniques and chemistry which involves the reduction of silver nitrate and ferrous salt with light. The final image in this process is quite permanent and has good, continuous tone. This process is one that is very "paper responsive," so care should be taken to insure that the fibers on the surface are saturated with the emulsion. Also, because this emulsion contains silver, only acid free, pure rag paper should be used if you are not using handmade paper. It is important to shake the bottle of chemicals while coating the paper to insure the heavier silver remains in suspension. Coat the paper with continuous brush strokes only slightly overlapping. Scrubbing, overlapping, and working back over the surface makes the emulsion less effective. To obtain the characteristic gray/brown tonality, after washing these images in warm water use a weak fixing bath and a hypo clearing agent with a final wash. Again, as with cyanotype, a wide range of color shifts and manipulations are possible. The gum bichromate process is best attempted after experimenting with one of the above processes. Gum printing using three components in varying proportions: gum arabic, watercolor pigment, and ammonium dichromate. Formulas for this mixture vary and kits are available. I recommend purchasing high quality watercolor and selecting pigments which are transparent rather than stain colors. Surface size the paper with gelatin or starch for this process. Mix the gum and about one inch of pigment before adding the dichromate. Use approximately one tablespoon each of gum and dichromate, then brush this mixture onto the paper. Expose the paper with ultra violet light for approximately three minutes. Then soak the exposed print in warm water to soften and remove the gum. Lightly rubbing the surface with a soft brush will hasten this process. If the print washes off, the exposure was too short; if the highlights do not clear, the exposure was too long or too much pigment was used. The images will be soft in comparison to the above processes, however multiple colors are possible and color separation negatives may be used. This is also a good process to use in combination with the others. The final process is done using Liquid Light, which is a silver nitrate emulsion manufactured by Rockland Colloid. It is available from most large photo supply houses or directly from Rockland. This emulsion is used under safe light conditions and must be heated to a liquid state before the papers can be coated. Be careful not to shake the container, as this will produce bubbles. Brush the "liquid" emulsion over the paper surface, and take care to thoroughly cover the surface. Here it is desirable to go back over the emulsion with strokes from the opposite direction. Dry the coated paper in complete darkness and expose with an enlarger using high contrast negatives. Contact prints may also be made and test strips are recommended. Use long 20-45 second exposure times with this process. Keep in mind that the emulsion becomes faster as it ages and is reheated. Develop the exposed image using paper developers such as Agfa or Decktol in 1:2-3 solutions, then place the developed image into two consecutive fixer baths and wash. Detailed instruction are contained with the package. This process may be used in combination with any of the previous processes. Liquid Light also works with conventional drawing, painting, and printkmaking techniques. Large format pieces may be obtained using this process. Hopefully, this brief outline of five easy processes will encourage you to experiment. It is an age of images, and the opportunity to enhance them with the creative force in handmade paper gives a balance between ages past and future dreams.   Suggested Preparation for Paper to Use with Photo Processing Fiber: cotton half stuff and esparto linters Beating: 1/2 lb. cotton (pre-soaked) 50 minutes 1/2 lb. esparto (pre-soaked) 30 minutes Sizing: Hercon internal sizing, 1/2 cup added to vat per pound of dry fiber (weight before beating) Other additives: calcium carbonate - amount varies with water source clay - one tablespoon per pound dry fiber titanium dioxide pigment (premixed, aqueous dispersed) - 1 tablespoon per pound dry fiber retention agent - enough to bond pigment to fibers     Sources Aiko's Art Materials Import, Inc. 714 S. Wabash Chicago, IL 60611 papers and brushes Carriage House Handmade Papers 1 Fitchburg St. #C-207 Somerville, MA 02143 papermaking supplies Cerulean Blue, Ltd. PO Box 21168 Seattle, WA 98111 graphic arts and photo supplies Dieu Donne Press and Paper Mill 3 Crosby Street New York, NY 10013 handmade papers Light Impressions Dept. HP PO Box 3012 Rochester, NY 14614 catalog photo materials Lee Scott McDonald, Inc. PO Box 264 Charlestown, MA 02129 papermaking supplies Paper Press 1017 W. Jackson Chicago, IL 60607 handmade paper information & supplies, classes Paper Source 207 W. Superior Chicago, IL 60610 art and handmade papers Photographer's Formulary, Inc. PO Box 5105 Missoula, MT 59806 photographic chemicals and supplies Rockland Colloid PO Box 376 Piermont, NY 10968 makers of Liquid Light Twinrocker, Inc. RFD 2 Brookston, IN 47923 handmade paper, including custom-made Visual Studies Workshop 31 Prince St. Rochester, NY 14607 information on experimental processes     Bibliography Jan Arnow, Handbook of Alternative Photographic Processes, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1982. Timothy Barrett, Japanese Papermaking, Weatherhill Publishing, New York & Tokyo, 1983. William Crawford, Keepers of Light, Morgan & Morgan, New York, 1979. Sheril Cunning, Handmade Paper, Raven's Word Press, Escondido, CA, 1989. Peter Fredrick, Creative Sunprinting, Focal Press, London, 1980. John Mason, Papermaking as an Artistic Craft, Twelve By Eight, Leichester, England, 1963. Bea Nettles, Breaking the Rules: A Photo Media Cookbook, Light Impressions Corporation, Rochester, NY, 1977. Catharine Reeve and Marilyn Sward, The New Photography, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1984. Bernard Toale, The Art of Papermaking, Davis Publications, Inc., Worcester, MA, 1983. Kent E. Wade, Alternative Photographic Processes, Morgan & Morgan, New York, 1978.

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