However, it is believed that shifu was first made in the early 1600's, at the beginning of the Edo Period. Old samples of shifu show that there were two distinctive kinds of early shifu made in Japan. One of them was made with thick thread for domestic, household use, like working clothes, while the other was woven into fine cloth with thin thread to use for commodity. Shiroishi City in Miyagi Prefecture (a northeastern district of Japan) was known in the early 1700's as the largest producing center for the fine cloth known as Shiroishi shifu . (1) The existence of this cloth was primarily due to the appreciation and support of Katakura, head of Shiroishi City at the time of shifu 's growing popularity. With the cooperation and workmanship of many people within the samurai family, the technique for making shifu was refined and the cloth sold widely within Japan and was given as presents to high-ranking men. Shiroishi paper threads were considered to be fine and white like silk threads,(2) and kinujifu, made with a silk ( kinu ) warp and paper ( kami ) weft, was praised very highly.(3) Many elegant cloths using natural dyes such as indigo and walnut were woven in distinct designs -- plain ( hira-ori), crepe ( chirimen-ori ), figured ( mon-ori ) and kobai-ori (which had a silk warp and an alternating thick and thin paper weft). These different shifu fabrics had many uses, including, fukusa (cloth made to cover presents), bookcovers, handkerchiefs and tablecloths. Shifu was best known for summer clothing because of the cloth's unique cooling ability. It was also worn in winter as a good insulator. In Shiroishi an all paper cloth called morojifu was made both for mosquito netting and for kamishimo , men's formal overcoats. Less morojifu was made than kinujifu , possibly because more time and skill were required to make thin and strong paper thread for both warp and weft, and the resulting look and feel were less refined that kinujifu. But farmers and fishermen made morojifu for their daily use, for undergarments and working wear, because other kinds of thread were too expensive and sometimes unavailable. During the Meiji Period (1868-1912), Japan was becoming industrialized and inexpensive machinemade cloths from other countries were imported. The competition became too great for shifu and by the early 1900's shifu making disappeared. Shifu 's revival was begun in 1940 by Chutaro Sato. Later, Nobumitsu Katakura, 15th descendent of the earlier Katakura, joined the mission, and in 1941 he published a small book about Shiroishi shifu . These two men founded a local Crafts Institute in Shiroishi primarily for shifu and kamiko (4). In 1955 shifu was given the prestigious title 'Intangible Cultural Property' for the craftspeople's outstanding workmanship and shifu 's uniqueness. (5) The principle fiber used for making paper thread of the three traditional Japanese papermaking fibers came from the paper mulberry tree ( Broussonetia genus), because of its strength and availability. From the many varieties of tree in the paper mulberry family, paper made from the tree termed kozo (Broussonetia kajinoki , Sieb.) was used for the paper threads. (6) The other two traditional fibers, mitsumata (Edgeworthia paryrifera , Sieb. et Succ.) and gampi (Diplomorpha sikokiana , Fr. et Sev.), have also been used for shifu . Although these papers are more expensive and slightly weaker than kozo paper, very fine paper thread and cloth can be made from them. (7) As early as the middle of the 1600's housewives of farmers and fishermen recycled kozo paper from used account books called daifukucho to make 5 to 10 mm thick paper threads. (8) (After making paper threads from the account book paper, sumi-e ink from the calligraphy on the paper could still be seen on the woven cloth, creating a distinctive design.) In contrast, in Shiroishi City, paper threads only 2 to 3 mm thick were made for fine cloth using a specially made shifu paper. (9) Today few papermakers can make a thin, strong kozo paper that is good for fine paper thread. (10) Mr. Seiki Kikuchi, of Yamagata town in Ibaraki Prefecture, has been making washi since 1965 and shifugami since 1977. Like most fine washi, shifu paper is made during the colder months using pure fiber and water. Young kozo trees between one and two years old are selected in early spring, and only fiber from the middle section of the tree is used to make paper. (Strong winds bend and toughen the tops of kozo trees while the large amount of water passage in the base of the trees lowers fiber quality there.) An important difference between shifu paper and other papers occurs during sheet formation. Great care and skill is taken to build up several thin layers of fiber in an up-and-down direction only, otherwise the fibers are overstrained when the thin paper strips are cut. Shifu paper should also be free of imperfections such as bark or large fibers which make cutting the paper more difficult. A period of aging is also important in making good shifu paper. (11) Partly because the process of making shifu is so time-consuming, there are very few shifu makers today. Presently fewer than twenty people are making shifu and only about five or six of them are making and preserving fine shifu . One of the foremost makers of fine shifu is Sadako Sakurai from Mito City in Ibaraki Prefecture. She and others are faithfully keeping shifu alive. Unfortunately, shifu 's past industry has gone. Formerly there were masters for each stage of the paper threadmaking process. With many workers involved and total concentration placed on each individual's specialty, a large volume of shifu was produced. Today's shifu makers, in contrast, are involved in all stages of the process with only occasional help from others and then on a much smaller scale. Sakurai's method of paper threadmaking has taken years of experimentation and close investigation of Katajura's collection of Shiroishi shifu . She has said that after ten years of working with shifu , she is only now beginning to understand its nature and to unveil the mysteries of making fine paper thread and cloth. All steps in paper threadmaking are done by Sakurai.(12) It takes about one month to cut forty sheets of paper into 2 mm widths and to make thread for a kimono. A few more weeks are then needed to complete the weaving and to sew the kimono. Two sheets of uncut shifu paper (13) are folded in half with the fibers lined up perpendicular to the fold. The two ends are folded again in opposite directions overlapping the inside edge by about 2 cm. One folded sheet is placed inside the other giving a thickness of eight sheets which are cut together on plywood with a ruler and a sharp blade (see diagram 1). Thumb tacks or a heavy weight prevent the papers from changing position. Millimeter measurements on the top and bottom of the board are used as guidelines when cutting paper strips, leaving most of the 2 cm outer edge untouched. Sakurai cuts mostly 2 and 3 mm widths, but sometimes she needs 4 and 6 mm widths for heavier cloths such as is needed for a hanten (short-lengthed working coat). The 90 cm length of paper is divided into four separate sheets approximately 22 cm wide, not including ends. After cutting, the papers are unfolded, separated and checked for uncut parts. Then as many as thirty-two to forty sheets are laid on top of each other between two spun-dried, damp cotton towels with a plastic cover to prevent drying. The papers dampen overnight or for seven to eight hours. After dampening, each single sheet of softened paper strips is carefully gathered by the uncut ends and rolled on two cement blocks by hand. Traditionally, round river rocks or tatami straw mats were used as a surface to roll the paper strips on. These surfaces may still be used by a few shifu makers while others, including Sakurai, are using cement blocks as a good substitute. One advantage of the cement is that the slightly rough surface stops the paper from slipping. In rolling the paper, less pressure from the palm of the hands is necessary in the beginning, but as the paper dries and regains its strength, more pressure is used. It takes about ten minutes to roll the paper. In the first few minutes it is important to get a good twist started before the paper dries too much. Throughout the rolling, a quick, rhythmic movement is skillfully performed, repeatedly rolling, shaking, straightening out the twisted strips, separating any tangles, gathering the strips, and rolling again. Someone watching might think that the fine paper strips would fall apart with such treatment, but the paper's internal structure and Sakurai's adept handling prove otherwise. (14) It is essential to be able to finish rolling the dampened paper strips without delay because, especially in hot weather, the papers turn moldy very quickly if left damp. For thirty-two to forty sheets of paper strips Sakurai takes about ten hours, all in one day, to complete the rolling (see diagram 2). The twisted papers are shaken well to remove fuzz that collects during rolling. (15) The paper's softened, uncut edges are torn with thumb and forefinger, and the remaining section is rolled over itself with the two twisted strips in a horizontal position. One edge is torn first creating loops with a joint or seed connecting each pair of twisted strips. This seed is one of shifu 's most distinctive characteristics. The same tearing process is then used on the other edge, resulting in one continuous thread, which is coiled into a large, shallow basket and covered with washi or cloth (see diagram 3). Kneeling beside a spinning wheel Sakurai gently holds the twisted paper at an angle above her waist, between forefinger and middle finger using her thumb for support. The wheel is turned an exact number of times to tighten the twist and to strengthen the fibers. (16) To prevent untwisting, the thread is raised vertically and wrapped around a bamboo spool. Each wrapping has about an arm's length of thread on the spool with an equivalent of one sheet per spool. Like the rolling, these movements are done quickly and rhythmically. After spinning, threads for the weft are kept on the spool and steamed for twenty to thirty minutes to help secure the twist. Paper threads used for the warp are spun tighter for additional strength and, after spinning, skeins of thread are immersed in boiling water for about ten seconds, which causes some shrinkage. After boiling, 2 mm paper threads from a quarter sheet measure approximately 62 meters, while 3 mm paper threads from a sheet of the same size measure about 43 meters. Today's shifu makers use a wide variety of natural dyes as they are readily obtained. The resulting shifu exhibits a greater range of colors than found in traditional shifu . Paper threads are usually dyed after spinning and require cooking in hot water with a mordant to either fix or to deliberately change the dye color. Sakurai has been working with natural dyes for many years and she is very strict about choosing them for their permanence and good color. Some of her favorites are indigo, walnut, lac, suo , and catechu . (17) Sakurai has found that paper threads take natural dyes better than cotton; the resulting rich colors are similar to those obtained with silk. An important characteristic of fine shifu is that it can be washed without damage to the paper threads. If making shifu for clothing, it is important to wash it many times, not only to clean but also to soften the cloth. Before washing, woven threads are straight and rather stiff. After washing, the threads have more room to expand, becoming softer and slightly wavy. Expanded paper threads also help to protect warp threads. The method for washing traditional Shiroishi shifu was quite elaborate and varied depending on the kind of shifu made. (18) Contemporary shifu makers do not wash the fabric as laboriously. Instead, shifu is soaked in hot water and rinsed several times, then dried in the sun and ironed before totally dry. This simpler and less time-consuming method of washing leaves the shifu with characteristics similar to Shiroishi shifu . Shifu should be woven differently from other cloths because of the way the internal structure of the paper thread is twisted. It is very important to weave shifu gently, unlike other fabrics, because of the delicate nature of the thread. Today, paper, silk, cotton (momen) and linen (asa) are used for warp threads. Traditional and contemporary clothes are made from shifu , including kimonos, hantens, obis (sash), jimbeis (men's knee-lengthed robes), norens (doorway curtains) and western dresses, shirts, ties, and wall hangings. It is hard to know what will happen to shifu making in the future, but its revival will continue as long as there are interested people both within and outside of Japan to support and share shifu with others. In the last three years experimental shifu has been made with soft tropical papers. Shifu made of abaca paper from the Philippines (19), breadfruit paper from Guam (20) (see photo), and basho (banana) paper from Okinawa have opened up new possibilities in terms of color, design and texture. This new direction is both encouraging and exciting. Experimental shifu , however, is not the same as fine shifu that is specifically made to be worn and washed like other natural fiber fabrics. Much depends on shifu 's intended function before being made into cloth. If fine shifu is desired, it should be made after serious practice and study, preferably with a master, and using a paper suited to the needs of shifu . A deeper understanding and a finer result can then be achieved. NOTES 1. The first record of Shiroishi shifu was in 1710 and by 1720 it was noted that this shifu was well known as very fine cloth, like silk. 2. Nobumitsu Katakura, Shiroishi Shifu . Kasama, Japan: Cannabis Press, 1983. 3. In the Japanese language the first letter in a word often changes when another word is placed in front. For example, kinu shifu becomes kinujifu and shifu kami becomes shifugami . 4. Kamiko is nonwoven paper cloth. Thick papers are glued together and sewn into clothing. 5. See: Margaret Sahlstrand & Janet Koplos, "Paper Clothing, East and West", Fiberarts , 11, no. 2 (March/April, 1984): 36-38. 6. Sukey Hughes, Washi . Tokyo, Kodansha International, 1978. 7. Records show that gampi shifu using a cotton or silk warp was made in Atami, Shizuoka Prefecture around 1891. 8. The date is based on the economic change is the Edo period which saw the introduction of currency as payment in place of rice; this is suspected to have led to the introduction of account books for keeping records. 9. Mr. Tadao Endo from Shiroishi City made shifu paper using local kaji fiber, at the beginning of the recent revival. 10. The kozo, mitsumata, and gampi papers of Timothy Barrett are suggested as a good source of paper suitable for shifu which is available within the United States. His address is: Dept. of Art & Art History, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52240. 11. A supply of shifu paper is made at least one month before being used for paper threads. The ideal length of time for the paper to age is about one year but Mr. Kikuchi is not able to make enough shifu paper that far in advance. 12. Sakurai's husband helps to cut, roll, and separate paper threads. 13. Traditionally shifu paper size was 37 cm x 52 1/2 cm but now the size is 60 cm x 90 cm. 14. In a visit to the United States in 1985, Sakurai explained that the most difficult part of paper threadmaking was the rolling or prespinning of the paper strips by hand. "I tried and failed and tried and failed and finally I learned. It's built into my body." 15. This fuzz known as "paper silk" or "paper cotton" covers the ground after the rolling process. Sakurai wears a cloth over her mouth and a hat and long sleeves to keep as much of this lint off as possible. 16. The number of turns varies depending on the thickness of the thread being made and the qualities desired. One turn of Sakurai's spinning wheel twists the thread about forty-five times. For a 2 mm thread, the wheel might typically be turned eight or nine times, twisting the paper from 360 to 405 times. 17. Lac comes from an insect, yielding crimsons, scarlets, and purples; suo is derived from sappan wood and creates pinks and lavenders; catechu comes from acacia extract in crystal form and is a brown dye. 18. Shiroishi shifu was washed differently for the different kinds of woven shifu . There were two types of crepe cloths woven: chirimen cloth used raw silk coated with a natural glue for the warp and paper thread with nori paste (a combination of sweet rice flour, a special rice bran, and calcium hydroxide) for the weft; omeshi cloth used plain silk thread and a nori-coated paper thread weft. Chirimen cloth had to be boiled in lye or straw ash for one day to remove all glue. Omeshi cloth was soaked and rubbed gently in hot water only. Next, both crepes were rinsed in running water. The crepes were then soaked in cold water with lye of wood ash and dried in the sun. This process was repeated thirty times for undyed and fifty times for dyed fabric. Finally the cloth was rinsed in running water to remove all lye and then dried and ironed. For plain, figured, and kobai-ori cloths, the washing process started with the soaking in cold water and wood ash lye. 19. Dorothy Miller, " Shifu : A Handwoven Paper Textile", Handwoven , Summer 1985. 20. The International Mini-Micronesia Conference '85 was held in Guam. The focus was on breadfruit paper, shifu making, and natural dyeing. A handout about the conference was printed by Cannabis Press, Kasama, Japan, Spring 1986. Cutting shifu paper. Various stages in making the seed and continuous thread from rolled shifu paper strips. Kozo for shifu paper drying. Sadako Sakurai holding up paper strips. Ms. Sakurai's studio, left to right: rolled paper threads, paper threads separated and coiled into basket, spun paper threads, spinning wheel, and bamboo spool. Rolled paper strips Loops with seed Detail of formation of the seed tear twisted paper strips in horizontal position paper rolled over itself seed Inspection of paper strips during rolling to insure that none stick together. Shifu made from breadfruit paper in Guam.
