When we returned to the city, our intrepid interpreter successfully sought him out, and we managed to meet him briefly. It turned out to be an important and fruitful meeting. When we returned to Xi'an in May 1995, we went back to Bei Zhang, accompanied by Li Fang. He presented me with an English translation of part of the book he was writing, translated by his young nephew. This is the article which follows. Li Fang's theory about the origin of paper may sound fanciful, but I agree with him that there is strong evidence that papermaking may well have originated in the area of Chang'an. In this area there has been a tremendous amount of archaeological activity, and enormous finds have been unearthed, of which the most widely known are the terra cotta warriors. But paper has also been found, dating back to the Western Han Dynasty (206 BCE-8 CE), well before the birth of Cai Lun, whom the Chinese and others (like Dard Hunter) had previously identified as the inventor of paper.   Since the beginning of this century, Chinese paper scholars have convincingly disproved the common belief that Cai Lun invented paper, through frequent discoveries of examples of ancient paper. Recent accounts of Cai Lun say that he "invented paper after generalizing and developing the experiences of the people before him." When and where did these forefathers of Cai Lun live? I, a descendant of papermakers, have my own view. Scholars and others are welcome to judge from the evidence. First, there is inspiration in folk songs. I was brought up on the banks of the Feng River in Bei Zhang village, where people have made paper for generations, and I learned how to make paper when I was a child. There is a folk song about papermaking before liberation. It says: "He who has a daughter must not let her get married to the fellow in Bei Zhang, for she has to get up at midnight to dry the paper." (Generally speaking, it is women who get up early to dry the paper. It is very hard work.) After liberation, I went to middle school and, later, to college. I learned the materialist dialectics, so I can reject the dross and assimilate the essence of another folk song: "Paper comes out of the Feng River, and curtain comes out of the water." I would describe this phrase as follows: The source of the Feng River lies in the deep valley of Mount Oin. In the ancient time of the Han Dynasties (206 BCE to 220 CE), there were various trees on Mount Oin. When it rained heavily, the river rose and flooded. The rain and the rising water felled the big trees. Through the force of the water, the tender part of the bark of the trees then became the original paper pulp, which floated on the surface of the water. At the same time, the flood also knocked down houses in nearby villages. It so happened that the curtains of some of the houses were swept away with the water, and one of them caught on a big tree lying across the river near Bei Zhang village, which lies downstream. Coincidentally, the paper pulp floating on the surface of the water collected on the curtain. After the water receded, the sun came out. It dried the paper pulp on the curtain, and the first piece of natural paper was thus formed. The ancient people of Bei Zhang found this new thing by accident and took it home with curiosity. At that moment, the fire of inspiration flashed; they found it could be used not only to cover things but also to write on. They began to study how it came to be made. After innumerable failures, they made the first paper in the world, in Chang'an. This kind of paper spread to Tian Shui in Gansu Province. Ma Tan paper, which was used during the periods of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing in the West Han Dynasty, was discovered in 1986. Ba Giao paper, discovered in Chang'an in 1957, and Zhong Yan paper, discovered in Fu Feng County in Shanxi Province in 1978, are similar to this kind of paper. Other early papers, like Luo Bu Zhuo Er paper, spread to Xinjiang Province and JinGuan paper and MaQuan paper to Gansu Province. All the oldest paper which has recently been found can find its source at the beginning point of the silk road: the banks of the Feng River. Of course, the natural formation of paper can also appear on other big rivers of the world, as long as there are similar natural conditions. The ancient people living by the Feng River got the inspiration from the natural formation of the original paper, and created Chang'an paper. Thus comes the folk song. The theory mentioned above is only regarded as a possible scenario for considering the root of paper in Chang'an. It is not the sole argument. BaQiao paper and Tian Shui paper in Liang-Guan provide more convincing proof of the origins of paper in Chang'an. Around 1949, seven examples of paper from before the time of Cai Lun were discovered in Shanxi, Gansu, and Xinjiang Provinces, along the Yellow River. These papers have two notable characteristics: they are made from macerated fibers and they were discovered in the Yellow River valley, along the silk road. The bark of the trees on Mount Oin is the traditional raw material of Chang'an paper. When Mount Oin was still a virgin forest, there were trees all over, especially the Chinese wolfberry. Even today, the large number of Chinese wolfberries in the LiuJu and Zhishui areas near Mount Oin provide plenty of raw materials for Chang'an paper. Regarding location, I will use a tree as a metaphor. If it takes root on the silk road of ancient Chang'an, the several excavated examples of ancient paper in Gansu Province, Xinjiang Province, and Neimeng Province are the flowers on the tree. I strongly agree with Comrade Ma Yi, as quoted in the first issue of Relics and Museology (p. 88). "The unearthed cultural relics of paper in the Han Dynasty are all discovered in the important counties and roads along the silk road... I think this phenomenon has its own deep historical background in politics, economics, military, and culture, and it would not be an occasional and isolated phenomenon." After giving facts and examples to support his view, he continues: "Most of the soldiers on watch here migrated from Zhong Yuan and Guan Zhong. Therefore, it was these soldiers who brought the paper or papermaking with them from the beginning point of the silk road: Chang'an. In a certain sense, we can say it was the military practice of stationing troops that brought the paper and papermaking to the Hexi area." During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE), Song Yingxing, the author of Tiang Gong Kai Wu, made a clear declaration in his book: "[papermaking] began in ancient times, but the people of the Han Dynasty and the Jin Dynasty (280-311 CE) were recorded as the inventors of it. How meager the knowledge is." The excavated ancient papers completely prove the wise conclusion of this great scientist, who lived more than three hundred years ago. Paper appeared at least as early as the West Han Dynasty. One may ask why I say the root of paper is in Chang'an, since paper has been found which was used before the period of Emperor Wenjing in the West Han Dynasty. I would seek the answer in the development of society. Whatever we may say, paper is the product of the upper social classes, and it must have had its root in social culture. The politics and culture in West China lagged behind the rest of China before the West Han Dynasty. But Chang'an, especially the valley area of the Feng River, was the capital of the time of Emperor Wen and Emperor Wu in the Zhou Dynasty (1122-221 BCE). The culture thrived and the area was economically very prosperous. The forests of Mount Oin and the plentiful water in the river provided great geographical advantages. The Tian Shui area in Gansu Province lies nearly on the fringe of Shaanxi Province, and it lagged behind in development. Why would the advanced art of making Chang'an paper not pass to Tian Shui in Gansu Province? It is just like the flowering tree. Tian Shui is outside the wall. Inside the wall, there is Zhongyan paper in the period of Emperor Han Xuan and Chang'an BaQiao paper in the period of Emperor Wu of the West Han Dynasty. This is more convincing proof that the root of paper is in Chang'an. We can find further proof for the thesis in the documents of ancient Chang'an. Four instances mentioning the use of paper in the West Han Dynasty can be found in these old writings. They are: a. San Fu Jiu Shi says: "The prince of Wei has a big nose. Emperor Wu was ill, and the prince went to see him. XigYun said: 'Your Majesty dislikes your big nose; you should take paper with you to cover it.'" b. Han History says XiRu made an article for Emperor Wu. The emperor ordered the official to give him the writing brush and paper. Yan Shigu in Tang Dynasty made the note: "There was little paper at that time, so the emperor gave him the paper to write on." I interpret this to mean that there was so little paper available that it was not used frequently. c. Han History says: "The beloved concubine of Emperor Han-Cheng [32-17 BCE], Zhao Fei Yan, has a small box. In it there was xidi paper used for packing medicine." As it was noted afterwards, xidi is a kind of thin, small paper. d. On Custom written by Yingshao in the East Han Dynasty says: "the Guang Wu Emperor founded the East Han Dynasty and made Luoyang his capital. In the winter of 25 CE, he moved from Chang'an to Luoyang by carriage. There were two thousand carriages on which were paper and bamboo slips." Documents written before Cai Lun in the East Han Dynasty make two references to paper: a. Hou Han History, Biography of Jai Kui records: "In the first year of the Han Dynasty, the emperor ordered Kui to talk about the white cloud Taoist temple of the North Palace and the Cloud terrace of the South Palace. The Emperor was greatly pleased by his speech. So he gave him [a history book]....He ordered Kui to choose by himself...twenty highly educated persons. They were taught and were given slips and paper to copy the book." b. In Hou Han Notes written by Yuan Hong, it says: "In October of the winter of 14th year of Yongyuan, Deng was chosen to be the Empress at Xingmou. ...She did not like things like jewelry and jade, and she did not even want to see them. At the end of the year, she was given paper and ink sticks as presents, in order to please her." All of these documents demonstrate that paper was used in the capital city before the West Han Dynasty in Chang'an and before the period of Cai Lun in the East Han Dynasty. Bei Zhang village has an old papermaking tradition, and it can be found on the map known as The Mark of Chang'an County, made in the Seng Dynasty. It was called Bei Zhang country at that time. According to historical sources, Bei Zhang country in Chang'an belongs to the area under the government of the capital city of the Zhou Dynasty's jurisdiction. In particular, Ling Terrace (now called "Equal Terrace"), built in the time of Emperor Zhou Wen, was under the government of this village's jurisdiction. The Feng River, to the west of the village, has its source on Mount Oin. In Shijing it is written: "In the beginning of building Ling Terrace, it was planned and built by common people and was finished in a few days." It also says: "The emperor was in Ling pasture." It also says: "River Feng flows to the east, and it is the achievement of the Wun Emperor." This shows that the people all over the area were identified merely by the name of the monarch of the Zhou Dynasty. The only material reminders of traditional papermaking we can find today are troughs used for papermaking and stone mortars used for beating the paper pulp. Troughs, stone tablets, stone mortars, and stone containers can often be found in Bei Zhang village when people dig foundations for their houses. Because they lack historical knowledge, they do not value the stones, so they have not paid much attention to them. Some of the stones they bury in the earth again, and some of them are used by the families who find them. For example, the trough and stone tablet in my house, according to my grandfather, were used for generations. I have recently found a stone container for beating pulp in the back yard of Wan Dongpai's house. This container is naturally formed except the hole in the center of it. All in all, this kind of thing can be found everywhere in the village. It is a pity that a whole papermaking house has not yet been discovered and excavated. Today, handmade paper is still well-established in Bei Zhang village. Aside from several steps now done using electric machines, the basic method of papermaking, beginning in the Han Dynasty, has hardly changed. Since the history of papermaking in Chang'an is so long, why are there not any records in the history books? This is due to the bias of the old feudal officials. Paper as a craft was made by lower class people, who had no rank and position. Who would write the history for them? Marxist and Leninist theory tells us: "Have the objective truth as the standard." We should take materialist dialectics as the weapon to correct the distorted history. I say the oldest paper was not made by human beings; it was formed by nature. The ancient working people who lived before the West Han Dynasty by the Feng River made the earliest Chang'an fiber paper, prompted by the inspiration of "Paper comes out of the River Feng, and curtain comes out of the water." My conclusion is that the origin of paper in China is deeply rooted in the earth of Chang'an. </div>

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