Most of our understanding of European hand papermaking techniques and practices comes from a handful of articles in 18th century technical encyclopedias. Even the casual student of papermaking history may have heard of the compilers of these articles: Lalande, Desmarest, and one or two others. In comparison, practically no one has heard of Cutbush. Yet for the history of American hand papermaking, his 1814 American Artist's Manual turns out to be the most important source of all, because it is the earliest account of American contributions to the papermaking trade. Moreover, it is the last substantial description of that trade before it was changed forever by the introduction of the papermaking machine and therefore one of the best sources for tracking changes in papermaking technology in Europe and America in the period between Lalande and Fourdrinier. It describes hand papermaking at the peak of its development. The article on papermaking in the American Artist's Manual begins with a pastiche of the European sources, but it ends with a long section titled "An account of the mode of making Paper practised in the United States." Cutbush himself probably cobbled together the first part, but the American section was written by another person, someone intimately familiar with the craft and business of papermaking as it was actually carried out in the Philadelphia area in 1814. The volume under review photographically reproduces the original printing of the entire article (twenty-five double-column pages), preceded by a letterpress introduction of almost fifty pages by papermaking historian John Bidwell. In a manner of speaking, Bidwell discovered Cutbush, and in so doing he has made a major contribution to American papermaking history. As we celebrate the tercentenary of American papermaking, Cutbush and Bidwell forcefully remind us that after this ancient craft was transplanted to our shores, many changes occurred. As the demand for paper increased, especially after the Revolution, new machines and techniques were imported from Europe and adapted to American conditions. Some of these machines were comparatively simple--one shook the dust out of rags, for example, and another agitated the pulp in the vat. Some innovations were technological rather than mechanical; the use of bleach, for instance. Some innovations did not involve either machinery or technology, such as the separation of the dirty and clean parts of the manufacturing process in different buildings. Hand craft and machinery were balanced at this point in the history of papermaking, but already the artisanal workshop of Wilhelm Rittenhouse had become a factory. Bidwell's beautifully written introduction is no mere preface. In the process of providing the background needed to appreciate the article, he sketches an original and authoritative view of the state of American papermaking in the early 19th century. Then, he deftly links the article to an actual paper mill. Bidwell came across Cutbush while working on a study of the Brandywine paper mill of Joshua and Thomas Gilpin, the men who introduced the papermaking machine to America in 1817. The practices Bidwell found in the Gilpin records differed in numerous ways from the accounts of Lalande and others, but they corresponded perfectly with Cutbush. In fact, one of the publishers of the American Artist's Manual was Redwood Fisher, whose father Miers had helped found the Brandywine mill in 1787; Fisher may have written the American section and used the Brandywine Mill as his model. Having made this connection, Bidwell goes on to comment on the Gilpin business and the papers they made, both before and after they began using a papermaking machine. The article itself contains a wealth of detail. In some parts the writing is obscure, but the introduction provides explanations of most of the rough spots. The most distinctive feature of the article is the attention given to the skills needed to sort the rags, prepare the pulp, and finish the paper. The vatman, the central figure in most modern accounts of hand papermaking, is here only one skilled worker among many, and comparatively little is said about what he does. The drying, sizing, and pressing of the paper are discussed in particular detail. Cutbush (following Desmarest) sees these as the most neglected aspects of the craft, ones which dramatically affect the delicate finish of the paper. I wonder whether some of the finishing techniques described here could be adapted for use by hand papermakers today. Bidwell and Cutbush together provide answers to many questions of concern to those with a practical interest in the history of papermaking. How did fermentation of rags affect the quality of paper, and was it practiced in America? When were the Hollander beater, engine sizing, alum sizing, and bleach introduced? How did they affect paper quality, and what were their advantages and disadvantages? How many sheets of paper are in a post? How many usable sheets in a ream? How many reams could a vat produce in a day? What weights and sizes of paper were made in America? I hope I have managed to convey what an elegant piece of work this text is. What a pleasure it is, then, to find it presented in an equally elegant form. Henry Morris of the Bird and Bull Press has produced a book of the highest quality in its paper, presswork, and design. The binding, by Campbell-Logan, works beautifully. It is a joy to read and handle. Each of the 180 copies of the edition has a leaf of the Gilpins' early machine-made paper tipped in. Of these, thirty-five also include a sheet of Gilpin handmade paper, and ten also have a sheet of handmade paper of the 1830s. Thus, in some copies at least, the reader can see and feel how far the art of making paper by hand had progressed in America in the early 19th century, how much the machine changed all that, and how hand papermaking nevertheless persisted. Jim Green

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